Textile Universities for M.E. & Ph.D.

Top Universities for Textile Degree Programs: 
Those 4 are the tops universities in the world ---

1. North Carolina State University (USA)
2. University of Nebraska-Lincoln (USA
3. Saxion University of Applied Sciences (Netherlands)
4. The University of Bolton (UK)

UK:
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1. The University of Manchester 
Web: http://www.materials.manchester.ac.uk/postgraduate/degreelist/

2. University of Bolton 
Web: http://www.bolton.ac.uk/BEE/

3. University of Leeds   

web: http://www.design.leeds.ac.uk/

4. Heriott Watt University   

web: http://www.tex.hw.ac.uk/

5. Heriott Watt University School of textile and design 
web: http://www.tex.hw.ac.uk/

6. University of Southampton Winchester School of Art 
web: www.soton.ac.uk

7. University of Huddersfield Textile Technology for Textile Designers 
web: www.hud.ac.uk

8. Manchester Metropolitan university 
web: http://www.artdes.mmu.ac.uk/textiles/ (MA in Textiles)

9. London Metropolitan University 
web: http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/ (MA in Textile Design)

10. Royal College of Art 
web: http://www.rca.ac.uk/ (MA/ MPhil/PhD inTextile)

12. University college Falmouth 
web: http://www.falmouth.ac.uk/ (MA in Textile Design)

13. DeMontfort University 
web: http://www.dmu.ac.uk/ (MPhil/ PhD in Textile Engineerin g and Materials)

USA:
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14. North Carolina State University 
web: http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/departments

15. Kaunas University of Technology 
web: http://en.ktu.lt/content/textile-engineering

16. Philadelph University 
web: http://www.philau.edu/

17. Auburn University College of Engineering 
web: http://eng.auburn.edu/

18. Clemson University College of Engineering and Science  

web: http://www.grad.clemson.edu/programs/PolyFiber/

19. Lehigh University 

web: http://www.lehigh.edu/engineering/academics/polymergrad2.asp

20. University of Wisconsin 
web: http://www.sohe.wisc.edu/

21. University of Nebraska --Lincoln 
web: www.unl.edu

22. University of North Texas School of Merchandising and Hospitality Management Indistria 
web: http://www.unt.edu/

23. Savannah College Of Art And Design Textile fibers 
web: www.scad.edu/fibers.

24. University of Connecticut Polymer Science 
web: http://www.ims.uconn.edu/polymer/

25. Eastern Michigan University College of Technology Apparel, Textiles and Merchandising 
web: http://www.emich.edu/cot/undergraduate

26. Lehigh University Polymer Science and Engineering 

web: http://www.distance.lehigh.edu/credit/polymer.htm

27. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering  

web: http://www.rpi.edu/research/nanotechnology

28. Florida State University College of Human Sciences Clothing , Textiles and Marchandising 
web: http://www.chs.fsu.edu/tcs/

29. University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Graduate Studies Textile Technology  

web: www.umassd.edu

30. Cornell University Textile 
web: www.cornell.edu

31. Universida de Do Minho, Portugal 
web: http://www.det.uminho.pt/

32. Colorado State University College of Applied Human Sciences Design and merchandising. 
web: http://www.dm.cahs.colostate.edu/

33. Iowa State University Textile and Clothing 
web: http://www.iastate.edu/

34. Kansas State University Apparel textile and interior design 
web: http://www.k-state.edu/assessment/degprogunit/humec/mission/apparel

35. North Dakota State University College of Science and Mathematics Coating and Polymeric Materials 
web: http://www.ndsu.edu/cpm/

36. University of California , Davit Letters and Science Textile  

web: http://textiles.ucdavis.edu/

37. Louisiana State University School of Human Ecology Graduate program in Textile , Apparel Design and Merchandising 
web: http://www.tam.huec.lsu.edu/about_us/

38. University of Massachusetts Lowell College of Arts and Sciences Polymer Science 

web: http://www.uml.edu/college/arts_sciences/

39. University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Graduate Studies Textile chemistry  

web: http://www1.umassd.edu/

40. Polytechnic Institute of NYU, Brooklyn Polytechnic University, Brooklyn Polymer Science and Engineering 
web: http://www.poly.edu/

41. University of Tennessee - Knoxville College of Engineering Textile Science  

web: http://www.engr.utk.edu/

CANADA:
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42. University of Manitoba 
web: http://www.umanitoba.ca/

43. University College of the Fraser Valley (UCFV) 
web: http://www.ucfv.bc.ca/

44. George Brown College of Applied Arts & Technology 
web: http://www.gbrownc.on.ca/

45. Concordia University - Québec 
web: http://www.concordia.ca/

46. La Salle College 
web: http://www.clasalle.qc.ca/

47. University of Alberta 
web: http://www.ualberta.ca/

48. Mount Royal College 
web: www.mtroyal.ab.ca

49. New Brunswick College of Craft & Design (NBCCD) 
web: http://www.gov.nb.ca/

50. College of the North Atlantic 
web: http://www.cna.nl.ca/

51. Brock University 
web: http://www.brocku.ca/ 

AUSTRALIA
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52. Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology 
web: http://www.rmit.edu.au/

53. University of New South Wales 
web: http://www.unsw.edu.au/ PhD in Textile Technology

54. Curtin University of Technology 
web: http://www.curtin.edu.au/

55. Deakin university 
web: http://www.deakin.edu.au/

INDIA & CHINA:
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56. Indian Institute of Technolgy, Delhi 
web: http://www.iitd.ac.in/textile/

57. HK Polytechnic University  

web: http://www.polyu.edu.hk/

58. Donghua University , China 

web: http://www.ices.cn/english/course1/content/jxj.htm

GERMANY:
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57. Dresden University 
web: http://www.inf.tu-dresden.de/

58. Niederrhein University 
web: http://www.hs-niederrhein.de/

59. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences 
web: www.fh-hamburg.de/

60. Albstadt-Sigmaringen University 
web: www.fh-albsig.de/

SWEDEN:
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61. Boras University 
web: http://www.hb.se

62. University College of Arts, Crafts and Design 
web: www.konstfack.se/

DENMARK:
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63. University of Copenhegen 
web: http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/

ITALY: 
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64. Politecnicodi Torino, Italy

web: http://www.dismic.polito.it/

FRANCE: 
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65. University of Provence 
web: www.univ-amu.fr/

66. Blaise Pascal University 
web: www.univ-bpclermont.fr/

67. ENSAIT Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Artset Industries Textiles  

web: http://www.ensait.fr/

NETHERLANDS: 
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68. Saxion University of Applied Sciences 
web : www.saxion.edu

CZECH REPUBLIC: 
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69. University of Pardubice 
web: www.upce.cz/

70. Technical University of Liberec 
web: www.tul.cz/en 

SPAIN: 
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 71. Cardenal Herrera University 
web: www.uchceu.es/

FINLAND: 
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72. University of Lapland 
web: www.ulapland.fi/

73. Aalto University 
web: www.aalto.fi/

74. Tampere University of Applied Sciences 
web: www.utu.fi/

Management of Textile Industry

Concept of the management

ð  Definition:- “Management is an art or a manner of managing, controlling or conducting an organisation and it is a skilful use of means or resources to accomplish a purpose.”

ð  The practice of management is direction the activities of others in the optimal application of all resources to accomplish planned objectives.

ð  Management is concerned with five ‘M’s:-

(1)   Materials

(2)   Methods

(3)   Money

(4)   Men

(5)   Machines

ð  Maximise the quality results from the resources available.

ð  Management is the area of getting things done through and with people, so the overall job of a manager is to create an atmosphere within the organisation which will facilitate the accomplishment of its objectives.

ð  For this purpose, one has to perform series of functions.

ð  Everyone has his own list of functions and tries to defend or protect himself by achieving a given target in specified time limit.

Objectives of the management

ð  The greatest challenge offered to the management is how to reconcile and integrate human efforts, resources and facilities towards common goods while avoiding discords and common disasters.

ð  The objectives of the management are many such as:-

(1)   Profitability

(2)   Market standing

(3)   Innovation

(4)   Productivity

(5)   Physical & financial resources

(6)   Manager performance and development

(7)   Worker performance and attitude

(8)   Social responsibility

Modern Management

ð  The meaning of a management and controlled activities carried on in any modern organisation may be reduced to a following basic principle:-

SOUND MANAGEMENT = CAREFUL PLANNING + EFFECTIVE CONTROL

ð  Maximisation of profit is the ultimate objective of production planning.

ð  Quality maintenance, improvement % innovation and cost reduction can alone give organisation a well laid down foundation for its quick progress.

Classification of Management

ð  The term management has the following classification:-

(a)   Top level management:- It consists of managing director or general manager and other high rank officers, such as deputy general manager and works manager etc. They are the  chief men or heads of the various departments.

(b)   Middle level management:- Other managers of officers in different departments such as purchase officer, production superintendent, chief store officer etc. come under the category of middle management. They are responsible for top management on the one hand and have control and supervision over the lower management staff.

(c)    Lower level management:- It consists of foremen, supervisors, inspectors and office superintendent and such other staff. They are just above the operational staff and their function is to get the work done from operational staff according to the instruction of middle management.

Organisation

ð  Every business needs to be organised for better performance.

ð  “Organisation is the co-ordination of man, material and machinery in such a way that maximum output at ease and efficiency under minimum total cost is assured.”

ð  “Organisation is a form of human association to produce cheapest products of better quality.”

Duties and responsibilities of organisation

ð  It provides means and medium through which groups of people work together effectively for the achievement of specific task.

ð  It is to create relationship which can minimise friction and work on objectives.

ð  It should clearly define the responsibilities of all persons in the factory. This is absolutely essential where there is a large size of enterprise and use of principle of division of labour.

Organisation structure

ð  It has been pointed out that people like to work for a company

(1)   Which runs smoothly

(2)   Where there is a clear organisation structure

(3)   Clear responsibilities of management

(4)   An efficient organisation of work distribution

ð  Good organisation is essential for efficient employee performance, since it effects both

(a)    The manner in which the work is to be performed

(b)   The effectiveness with which the work is supervised and controlled.

ð  Thus, in order to achieve the objectives of the industry, the efforts of all employees must be organised properly.

ð  At the top of the management structure, the Board of Directors is the top policy making body and day-to-day administration is carried out at the unit level by the General Manager/President/C.E.O., who is functioning as the Chief Executive for all practical purpose achieved through lower level management.

Functions of Textile Management

ð  The various functions of management are as under:-

(1)   Production management:- It aims at optimum production at minimum cost, within the shortest possible time and without affecting the required standards of quality.

(2)   Material management:- It covers efficient management of material in all its aspects including

(a)    Material planning and programming

(b)   Purchasing

(c)    Inventory control

(d)   Receiving

(e)    Warehousing and store keeping

(f)    Material handling

(g)   Disposal of scrap and surplus.

It has been found that in the textile industry cost of material accounts for nearly 2/3^rd of the total cost of production and hence there is great importance of efficient inventory management in all the industry.

(3)   Project planning:- This is an important management technique. Project appraisal is a technique of evaluating and analysing investment in their entity. Inadequate investment planning and failure of many development programmes are often attributed to insufficient attention to project planning. Consideration, necessary for project evaluation are mean to provide outline of the problem and not the application of the techniques of evaluation.

(4)   Cost accounting:- The cost accounting system is designed to provide the information of determining the costs of products, processes or operations and for exercising cost control in many directions to the management. Cost control means maximum utilisation of men/manpower, machines and money. Profitability of the industry is dependent on successful controlling of the costs.

(5)   Sales management:- It covers marketing activities and functions required for the sale of products and it strives for recurring the best results of marketing strategy.

(6)   Quality control:- The survival of the industry depends mainly upon

(a)    Its ability to manufacture goods of acceptable standards and

(b)   Market them at reasonable price.

In order to achieve this objective, it is absolutely necessary for the management

(a)    To influence an up-to-date research and development programme, whereby reasonable standard quality goods  are manufactured

(b)   Effective quality control measures/steps are adopted to ensure standard quality at each subsequent process and

(c)    Reduce damages and variations in the final product quality.

(7)   Operation research:- It is an important tool of management which applies scientific method to the problem of production and finance. Operation research has been the right method of attack on problems arising in the management by way of right control of men, machines and materials.

(8)   Value analysis:- It is an organised approach which has the efficient identification of unnecessary costs which provide neither quality nor appearance. Value analysis results in orderly utilisation of alternative materials. It is a technique of cost reduction based on systematic and organised examination of every item of cost, which goes in to the manufacture of the fibre and fabric in terms of value or custom satisfaction.

(9)   Personal management:- It aims at obtaining capable people for achieving the objectives of the organisation and to ensure that their efforts are utilised effectively. The function of personal managements are:-

(a)    Manpower planning

(b)   To fix job specification

(c)    Scientific requirement

(d)   Selection of staff

(e)    To provide training for new technique of development

(f)    Wage and salary administration

(g)   Continuous development

(h)   To maintain industrial relations

(10)           Labour participation in management:- In a socialist democracy, labour occupies a unique position in the industry. All the efforts must be made by the government, employer and workers to generate the right or healthy climate for the success of worker’s participation and to give a sincere and genuine trail to such schemes for the continuous growth of the industries.

(11)           Pricing:- Pricing is a critical decision as it affects sales revenues and ultimately the profits. The three basic methods of pricing based on costs are:- (a) Cost + Pricing, (b) Marginal cost, (c) Break-even concept in pricing. The basic principle of a Textile cost system is to control it by predetermined budget estimates and the manufacturing costs of various yarns and materials. Costs are a measure of operational efficiency. Planned costs give the desired efficiency and profitability.

(12)           Industrial relations:- To maintain the good industrial relations is an important and vital function of Textile management. In a democracy based on socialist pattern of society, it is more important to keep harmonious relations between employees and employers in order to achieve high levels of productivity. It also aims at maintaining and developing employee’s motivation as well as employee’s moral.

 An impact of Scientific Management

ð  Scientific management is the latest development in the evaluations of management.

ð  The management logically has become scientific management with the application of methods of science.

ð  Scientific management is that management which uses the scientific approach and scientific methods for all the types of problems and their solutions as opposed to the traditional management which uses non-scientific approach and non-scientific methods for these problems and their solutions.

ð  Scientific approach means:-

(1)   Objective in thinking and doing

(2)   Exact measurement

(3)   Making and following laws and principles

(4)   Experimentation and their rational application.

ð  This is the basic change in approach which distinguishes the scientific management from traditional management which believes in the non-scientific of thinking and doing.

ð  The traditional management is always stressed on subjective or intuitive approaches and trail and error approaches.

ð  The chief characteristic of scientific management is that it brings a drastic change in management approach towards looking at the problems and solving those problems.

ð  Now a days most of the modern organisation and industries are adopting a fully computerisation system for their administration and production departments to cut-short the time and to achieve an accuracy in their quality output.

ð  This is a best example to distinguish the traditional management and scientific management because this type of output and time saving is quite impossible within the environment of traditional management.

Quality Control in Pretreatment Process of Fabric

Standard test methods for the evaluation of individual processes in

 fabric preparation

Process	Test to be carried out
Desizing	Desizing efficiency
Scouring	Absorbency, wax content, ash content, cuprammonium fluidity
Bleaching	Absorbency, wax content, ash content, cuprammonium fluidity, whiteness
Mercerising	Barium activity number, other tests
Heat setting	Boiling water shrinkage, iodine absorption test

Desizing efficiency

ð  For the determination of desizing efficiency, the amount of size on grey fabric and residual size on the desized fabric is determined.

ð  According to the Indian Standard No. 199 the samples are first to be solvent extracted in a soxhlet with chloroform followed by enzyme desizing so that the size is completely removed.

ð  The desizing efficiency is then calculated as follows:

·         A desizing efficiency value of 90% is considered to be excellent and that of 80-90% is considered to be satisfactory. Values below 80% indicate poor desizing.

ð  This test procedure is rather cumbersome for routine work.

ð  Hence, the amount of size and residual size on grey and desized fabric may be determined by enzyme-desize only, using a good quality enzyme.

ð  Complete size removal may be checked by testing with acidified iodine solution.

% Desizing efficiency =  % Original size - % Residual size    X 100%

                                                                      % Original size

Absorbency

ð The simple test for measuring the absorbency of sample consists of allowing a drop of water to fall from a fixed distance (2.5 cm) to the conditioned fabric sample, which is mounted in an embroidery frame of about 6 inch diameter.

ð A stop watch is started as soon as the drop falls on the fabric and stopped no sooner the image of the reflected light disappears at the edge of the drop. i.e. water drop is completely absorbed by the fabric.

ð This is termed as “Drop Absorbency Test”.

ð Another method for absorbency test, is the measurement of the time required for the sample of about 1 inch size to sink in water, termed as Sinking Time.

ð Drop absorbency or sinking time of about 5 sec is generally considered satisfactory for well prepared cellulosic materials.

ð In the case of polyester which is a hydrophobic fibre, or its blends, the above mentioned test methods are not likely to be applicable.

ð Berdnt and Golob have suggested measuring the height of water raised by capillary action to indicate the uniformity in absorbency of polyester/cellulosic blended fabric.

ð In this test method a 5 cm wide strip is cut across the filling direction. The strip is then cut into 5 cm long sections.

ð The numbered specimens are then immersed 1 mm deep in 1% aqueous solution of C.I.Direct Blue 86 for 2 sec and then immediately placed on a wire screen.

ð After drying, the capillary rise of the dye solution is measured. The uniformity in absorbency across the width can thus be tested.

ð For 100% polyester fabric a test method has been suggested by Dugal et. Al.

ð Specimens measuring 50 cm long(warp) X 30 cm wide(filling) are  cut from the fabric, across the full width.

ð These are then padded with 60 gpl black disperse dyestuff and 10 gpl polyacrylate based antimigrating agent, with a pick-up of about 70% and finally air dried.

ð The differential absorbency, if any, can be seen on the dried ground in the form of light-dark stripes, spots or streakiness.

ð In many cases the fault can be detected in the padded fabric itself.

Wax Content

ð  This is estimated by extracting about 10 g of material with a suitable solvent (viz Chloroform for cellulose and petroleum ether for polyester blends) in a soxhlet apparatus for about 4hours.

ð  The extracted is filtered and the filtrate is dried on a water bath and then transferred to an oven, kept at 105°C and dried to constant weight.

ð  The amount of residue is expressed as percentage wax content on the original weight of the sample.

Ash Content

ð  About 5 g of sample is incinerated in a silica crucible in a burner followed by complete ashing in a muffle furnace at about 700°C for 10 min and the amount of ash obtained is expressed as percentage of the original sample.

Cuprammonium Fluidity

ð  This is a sensitive index for the determination of chemical degradation of cotton cellulose during scouring, bleaching, souring, etc.

ð  In this test, the conditioned cotton sample required to make 0.5% solution is exactly weighed and dissolved in cuprammonium hydroxide solution in an X- type viscometer tube and the rate of flow of this solution at temperature of 20°C.

ð  The viscometer is a glass tube with a wide mouth at one end and a narrow capillary exit, through which the solution is allowed to flow, at the other end.

ð  The dimension of the tube should be within the limits specified in the various standards.

ð  As the dimensions of individual viscometer tubes will vary within the prescribed limits, certain preliminary determinations have to be made with each tube, which should preferably by numbered suitably for identification.

ð  Firstly, as a 0.5 % solution is to be prepared in each tube, the volume of each tube has to be determined accurately.

ð  This internal volume should be approximately 20 ml and is determined by completely filling the viscometer tube with water, with a mercury column of 0.7 ml in position at the bottom, as this quantity of mercury is always added in each viscometer for the purpose of stirring the solution.

ð  Secondly, the constant (C) of each viscometer has to be determined by measuring the time of flow (t₁) in seconds of a liquid of known fluidity; for this purpose, a solution of about 65% glycerol in water, having a density (d₁) of 1.681 g/cm³ and a fluidity (F₁) of 6.83 rhes is used.

ð  Then,

C  =  F₁  X  d₁  X  t₁

ð  The flow time of this solution between two fixed marks on a calibrated viscometer (fluidity tube) is measured at a specific temperature.

ð  The fluidity value “F” is then calculated from the equation given below

F = C / t ,

C = Viscometer constant and t = Flow time

ð  The results are expressed as rhes (1/Poise), which is the reciprocal of the unit of viscosity.

ð  Fluidity value 5 to 8 is considered to be satisfactory for normal bleached fabric.

ð  Determination of fluidity is a sensitive test for fabrics of 100% cotton; but erratic results may be obtained when cotton is blended with regenerated cellulosic which have a much lower DP than cotton and are therefore prone to suffer damage during alkaline scouring.

ð  However, for fluidity determination of 100% viscose fabric, a 2% solution in cuprammonium hydroxide may be used which is likely to show a fluidity value of 8.

Whiteness

ð  This is attributed to the luminosity as well as to freedom from yellowness.

ð  It is measured by measuring reflectance of the specimen against a standard white, viz. magnesium oxide which represents a whiteness value of 100.

ð  Whiteness is measured at 460 nm, measures both the brightness and yellowness of the sample since this wavelength lies in the blue region of the spectrum.

ð  This measurement at single wavelength is suitable only for comparing samples having the same reflectance curve and often do not agree with visual assessment.

ð  Therefore whiteness formulae, as given below, based on reflectance measurements at two different wavelengths i.e. blue and red region of the spectrum, have been developed.

ð  This means that both the general level of reflectance and the reflectance loss in the blue region i.e. degree of yellowing are recorded.

W = 100 – (R670 – R430)  ……. (Harrison)

W = 430 – (R670 – R430) ……. (Stephenson)

ð  The expression within the bracket is a direct measure of the degree of yellowing.

ð  In the Stephenson formula the reflectance measured in the blue region also serves as an intrinsic white, whereas in the Harrison formula the constant 100 is used and intrinsic white is not included.

ð  Development of tristimulus spectrophotometer and calculation of whiteness value using B.G.A. system (B = blue, G = green, A = amber i.e. red) have significantly improved the results and these are claimed to tally with visual assessment.

ð  In the USA, many instruments in common use give the Hunter’s coordinates L, a, b directly and whiteness formulae based on these values have been developed.

ð  Two such important formulae are given below:-

W = L – 3b      ….. (Hunter)

W = L + 3a – 3b … (Stensby)

Barium Activity Number

ð  The degree of swelling of cotton material during mercerisation is usually determined by the barium hydroxide absorption test.

ð  Mercerised cotton absorbs soluble alkaline hydroxide to a greater extent than unmercerised cotton.

ð  Amongst the various alkalies, barium hydroxide is more readily absorbed than the others, and the extent of absorption can also be more easily measured.

ð  The barium activity number is defined as the ratio of the quantity of barium hydroxide absorbed by mercerised cotton to that absorbed by unmercerised cotton under identical conditions, multiplied by 100.

ð  A specimen weighing about 3 g is taken from the sample and is extracted with carbon tetrachloride in a soxhlet extraction apparatus to remove minerals, waxes etc.

ð  Exactly 2 g (oven – dry weight basis) of the specimen is transferred to a 50 ml conical flask and 30 ml of 0.25 N barium hydroxide added to it.

ð  The flak is stoppered and allowed to stand for at least 2 hours with frequent shaking.

ð  At the end of the period, 10 ml of the clear solution are pipette out from the flask and titrated with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid using phenolphthalein indicator.

ð  An unmercerised scoured cotton material similar in construction to that under test is used as a control and the determination is carried out on the control specimen in the same manner as on the mercerised material.

ð  A blank determination is also carried out following the same procedure but without any specimen in the flask.    

ð  From the results, the barium activity number is then calculated as follows:-

Barium Activity Number =  a – b  X  100

                                                 a – c

   

 Where, a = volume of acid required for blank

                          b = volume of acid required for mercerised test specimen

                          c = volume of acid required for control unmercerised specimen

ð  A well mercerised cotton fabric generally shows barium activity number in the range of 125 – 135.

ð  When cotton is blended with polyester fibre this test may be used for routine checking.

ð  In such cases the amount of sample should be adjusted (depending on blend composition) so that the amount of cotton fibre in the blended sample equals to 2 g.

ð  However, it should be clearly noted that this test may be followed only for a routine check and these results cannot be referred to for any claim or litigation as no standard has yet been published on this subject.

ð  When cotton is blended with regenerated cellulosics, the determination of barium activity number is not likely to give correct results as regenerated cellulosics have a different absorption of barium hydroxide as compared to cotton.

Shrinkage in Boiling Water

ð  This test was originally recommended by Du Pont, for assessing the efficiency of heat setting of polyester/cotton blended fabric.

ð  In this test, the blended fabric sample is marked in warp and weft directions and is then boiled in water in drum washing machine for 30 minute.

ð  The boiling water shrinkage is then determined.

ð  It has been found that a well heat set, 67/33, polyester/cotton blended fabric shows boiling water shrinkage within 1%.

ð  However, this may very if the proportion of cellulosic component in the blend is increased and standards for different blends can easily be established.

ð  It is calculated as follows:-

% Shrinkage =  L₀  -  L_f     X   100

                                             L₀

                Where, L₀ = Original Length

                         L_f  = Final Length

Iodine Absorption Test

ð  Heat set polyester absorbs less iodine than the corresponding unheated material and this property is used for assessing the degree of heat setting of polyester.

ð  Exactly 1 g of sample is accurately weighed into 250 ml stoppered flask and 30 ml of 0.1 N iodine solution (prepared by dissolving 12.7 g iodine and 20 g potassium iodide in water. To this solution 100 ml glacial acetic acid and 350 ml phenol is added and finally diluted to 1 : 1 with water) is added and allowed to stand for 2 hours.

ð  After this period, the specimen is transferred to a sintered glass crucible and washes with water till free from iodine.

ð  The sample is then transferred to a 250 ml flask containing 50 ml chloroform.

ð  As the chloroform is a powerful swelling agent for polyester, the iodine absorbed by the polyester quickly passes from the fibre to the chloroform.

ð  Exactly 10 ml of 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate is added and the mixture is titrated against 0.01 N iodine solution, using starch as indicator.

ð  Simultaneously a blank determination (without sample) is carried out under the same conditions.

ð  The absorption of iodine is expressed in mg of iodine per g of fibre i.e.

Iodine Absorption (mg/g) =   (X – Y) X 0.01 X 127

                                                                            W

Where, X = ml of 0.01 N iodine required for blank

             Y = ml of 0.01 N iodine required for sample

                        W = weight in g of sample

ð  If polyester is blended cellulosic fibre, the latter should be removed by carbonisation and only the polyester portion should be taken for the test.

ð  It should be noted that the test temperature has a significant effect on iodine absorption by polyester.

ð  With increase in test temperature the iodine absorption value also increases.

ð  It is therefore necessary to carry out the tests at the same temperature, in order to obtain reproducible results.

ð  This test is also carried out for cotton material to know accessible region of it.

ð  An accurately weighed quantity, about 0.3 g of the sample of cotton material is treated in a 250 ml conical flask with 2 ml of iodine solution (containing 5 g iodine and 40 g potassium iodide, dissolved in 50 ml distilled water).

ð  After thoroughly mixing the cotton and iodine solution, 100 ml of a saturated solution of sodium sulphate are added to the flask.

ð  The flask and the contents are stored in a dark place for about one hour. The unabsorbed iodine remaining in the solution is determined by titrating 50 ml of the solution, to which are added 50 ml of distilled water, with 0.02 N sodium thiosulphate solution.

ð  Starch solution (1 ml of 1% solution) is used as the indicator. A blank determination on the original iodine solution is carried out in the same way without any specimen in the flask.

ð  From the titration readings, the percentage of accessible region is calculated by the formula:

Percentage accessible region  =  (a-b)  X  2.04  X  2.54     X    100

                                                                             412  X  c

            Where, a = quantity in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution required by the blank

                         b = quantity in ml of thiosulphate solution required by the solution containing

                             the test specimen

                         c = oven – dry weight of the specimen taken for the test.

Copper Number                                

ð  The presence of aldehydic groups in the cellulose molecular chain can be assessed from its reducing power determined as the copper number.

ð  The ‘copper number’ is the weight in grams of copper reduced from the cupric to the cuprous state in alkaline solution by 100 g of oven – dry cellulose.

ð  The value of copper number is very low (about 0.2) in the case of normal cotton fibres and there is a marked increase in the copper number when chemical changes are introduced in the molecules, by oxidizing agents, acids or alkalies.

ð  The two methods commonly used for the estimation of copper number are

(1)   the Schwalbe – Braidy method, as modified by Clibbens and Geake

(2)   the ‘micro’ method developed by Heyes.

ð  The second method is based on the use of small quantities of the material and is widely used for routine determinations and for research work.

ð  For ‘micro’ method following solutions are first prepared:-

·  Solution A:- Prepared by dissolving 150 g anhydrous sodium carbonate and 50 g sodium bicarbonate in one litre of water.

·  Solution B:- Prepared by dissolving 100 g crystalline copper sulphate in one litre of water.

·  Solution C:- Prepared by dissolving 100 g ferric alum in water, adding 140 ml concentrated sulphuric acid and then making up the volume to 1 litre with water.  

ð  The sample is cut into pieces, approximately 1.5 mm in length, and then thoroughly mixed.

ð  An accurate weighed 0.25 g of the sample (oven – dry) is taken in a Pyrex test tube (100 mm X 15 mm).

ð  A mixture of 9.5 ml of solution A and 0.5 ml of solution B is heated quickly to boiling and poured over the weighed sample in the test tube.

ð  The test tube is covered with a pear – shaped bulb to prevent evaporation and then immersed in water bath containing boiling water such that the level of the liquid in the test tube is below that of the water in the bath.

ð  After the boiling has proceeded for 10 min the contents of the test tube are stirred with a glass rod to drive off carbon dioxide.

ð  The boiling is continued for three hours, with stirring being carried out at regular intervals of 30 min.

ð  The tube is then removed and cooled in water. The contents of the tube are filtered using a sintered crucible (IG3) and the residue washed thrice with water.

ð  The crucible is then attached to a clean filter flask and the cuprous oxide residue in it is dissolved by treatment with solution C.

ð  For this purpose, the reaction tube is rinsed with 1.5 ml of solution C until all the oxide deposited on the inside surface of the tube is dissolved.

ð  Without applying any suction to the filter flask, the residue in the crucible is flooded with this solution from the tube, and the solution is allowed to remain in contact with the precipitates for about two minutes.

ð  Suction is then applies to the flask and the above treatment repeated by taking 1 ml of solution C in the reaction tube.

ð  The reaction tube is washed out in the filter and the cellulose residue in the crucible washed three to four times, using 2 ml lots of distilled water and squeezing the cellulose with a glass rod after each washing.

ð  The filtrate and washing are titrated with 0.04 N ceric sulphate, using ferrous – o – phenanthroline as internal indicator.

ð  A blank determination is carried out using 2.5 ml of solution C and the same quantity of distilled water as used for washing.

ð  It may be noted that 1 ml of 0.04 N ceric sulphate is equivalent to 0.002543 g copper.

ð  The copper number is then calculated from the volume of ceric sulphate required and the quantity of oven – dry cellulose taken up for the test.

ð  In the case of copper number exceeds 4, the determination is repeated with half the weight of the sample.

ð  Duplicate determinations are carried out in each and the mean is calculated.